Carl Linnaeus

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Carl Linnaeus (Carl von Linné)
Carl von Linné, Alexander Roslin, 1775. Currently owned by and displayed at the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
Born	May 23, 1707(1707-05-23)[a 1] Råshult, Älmhult, Sweden
Died	January 10, 1778 (aged 70) Uppsala, Sweden
Residence	Sweden
Nationality	Swedish
Fields	Zoology, Medicine, Botany
Alma mater	Lund University Uppsala University University of Harderwijk
Known for	Taxonomy Ecology Botany
Author abbreviation (botany)	L.
Signature

Carl Linnaeus ^{[a 2]} (Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus ^{[a 3]}, also known after his ennoblement as Carl von Linné (help·info), 23 May [O.S. 12 May] 1707 – 10 January 1778) was a Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist, who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of binomial nomenclature. He is known as the father of modern taxonomy, and is also considered one of the fathers of modern ecology.

Linnaeus was born in the countryside of Småland, in southern Sweden. His father was the first in his ancestry to adopt a permanent last name; prior to that, ancestors had used the patronymic naming system of Scandinavian countries. His father adopted the Latin-form name Linnaeus after a giant linden tree on the family homestead. Linnaeus got most of his higher education at Uppsala University and began giving lectures of botany there in 1730. He lived abroad between 1735–1738, where he studied and also published a first edition of his Systema Naturae in the Netherlands. He then returned to Sweden where he became professor of botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on several journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants and animals. In the 1750s and 60s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, and published several volumes. At the time of his death, he was renowned throughout Europe as one of the most acclaimed scientists of the time.

The Swiss philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau sent him the message: "Tell him I know no greater man on earth."^[1] The German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote: "With the exception of Shakespeare and Spinoza, I know no one among the no longer living who has influenced me more strongly."^[1] Swedish author August Strindberg wrote: "Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist".^[2]

In botany, the author abbreviation used to indicate Linnaeus as the authority for species names is simply L.

Name

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2009)

When referring to or citing the author Linnaeus, it is appropriate to use 'Carl Linnaeus', 'Carolus Linnaeus' or just 'Linnaeus'. 'Carl von Linné' seems to be less suitable, especially for the works he published before 1762. On the title page of the second edition of Species Plantarum (1762) the author's name is still printed as 'Carolus Linnaeus' (or rather the genitive form 'Caroli Linnaei') but from then on, his name is quite consistently printed as 'Carolus v. Linne' or 'Carl von Linné'. Stafleu uses 'Carl Linnaeus' as the author's name for all his works.^[3] In Sweden and the other Scandinavian countries, he is commonly known by his ennobled name Carl von Linné.

The adjectival form of his name is usually 'Linnaean'; however the world's premier taxonomy society is named the Linnean Society of London, and publishes the journal The Linnean, awards the Linnean Medal, and so on.

Life

Childhood

Birth place of Linnaeus at Råshult.

Carl Linnaeus was born in Råshult, Småland, Sweden on 23 May 1707. He was the first child of Nils Ingemarsson Linnaeus and Christina Linnaea (née Brodersonius); Nils coming from families who had been peasants or priests for many generations. His father, Nils, was an amateur botanist, a Lutheran minister, and the curate of the small village Stenbrohult in Småland. The mother, Christina, was the daughter of the rector of Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius. She subsequently gave birth to three daughters and one more son who would later write a manual on beekeeping.^[4][5] A year after Linnaeus' birth his Samuel Brodersonius died which resulted in Nils becoming the rector of Stenbrohult. Thus Linnaeus and his parents could move into the rectory instead of the curate's house where they had lived before.^[6][7]

Even in his early years Linnaeus seemed to have a liking for plants, flowers in particular. Whenever he was upset he was given a flower which immediately calmed him. Nils spent much time in his garden and often showed flowers to Linnaeus and told him of their names. Linnaeus was however just a child so he often forgot the names of the plants. Thus his father scolded him and told him he would not learn him any more names until Linnaeus remembered the already told. After that the boy tried to remember the names of the plants so that he would not be robbed of one of his greatest pleasures, names.^[7] Soon Linnaeus was given his own patch of earth in his father's garden where he could grow plants.^[8]

His father also began teaching Linnaeus for example Latin, religion and geography, at an early age but when Linnaeus was seven he considered it better for him to have a tutor. His parents picked Johan Telander, a son of a local yeoman. Telander was not appreciated by Linnaeus whom later wrote in his autobiography that Telander "was better calculated to extinguish a child's talents than develop them".^[9] Two years after his tutoring had begun he was instead sent to a Lower Grammar School at Växjö.^[10] Linnaeus rarely studied, instead he often went to the country side to look for plants. Nevertheless Linnaeus managed to reach the last year of the Lower School when he was fifteen, in 1717. This year was taught by the headmaster, Daniel Lannerus who was interested in botany. Lannerus noticed Linnaeus' interest in botany and gave him the run of his garden. He also introduced him to Dr Johan Rothman who was the state doctor of Småland and teacher at Växjö Gymnasium. Rothman, being a doctor and thus at that time also a botanist, widened Linnaeus' interest in botany and helped him develop a interest in medicine.^[11][12]

In 1724 Linnaeus entered the Växjö Gymnasium after having spent the last seven years in a grammar school. At the gymnasium he studied for example Greek, Hebrew, theology and mathematics; subjects which was usually studied when intending on a future as a priest.^[13][14] In the last year at the gymnasium Linnaeus' father Nils visited to ask the professors at the gymnasium how Linnaeus' studies were progressing; to his dismay most of them told him that Linnaeus would never become a scholar. However, Dr Rothman believed otherwise and suggested that Linnaeus could have a future in medicine. Dr Rothman even offered that he would give Linnaeus a home in Växjö and teach him physiology and botany. Nils gratefully accepted this offer.^[15][16]

University

Dr Johan Rothman showed Linnaeus that botany was a serious subject and not only a simple hobby. He taught Linnaeus to classify plants according to Tournefort's system. Linnaeus was also taught about sexuality of plants according to Sébastien Vaillant.^[15] In 1727 Linnaeus, now 21, enrolled Lund University in Skåne.^[17][18] Linnaeus was offered tutoring and lodging by the local doctor Kilian Stobaeus. There he could use the doctor's library, holding many books about botany, and was given free admission to the doctor's lectures.^[19][20] On his free time Linnaeus explored the flora of Skåne together with other students who had the same interests.^[21]

In August 1728 Linnaeus decided to go to Uppsala University instead since Dr Rothman believed it would better if Linnaeus wanted to study medicine and botany.^[22] In Uppsala Linnaeus met a new benefactor, Olof Celsius. Olof was a professor in Theology and a amateur botanist.^[23] Olof received Linnaeus into his home and gave him entrance to his library which was one of the richest botanical libraries in Sweden.^[24]

In 1729 Linnaeus wrote a thesis, Preludia Sponsaliarum Plantarum on the sexuality of plants. This caught the attention of Olof Rudbeck the Younger (1660-1740), a professor of botany in the university. In 1730 Rudbeck selected Linnaeus to begin giving lectures at the University; they were very popular and Linnaeus could find himself addressing an audience of 300 persons.^[25]

Travel and research

Cities where Linnaeus worked.

In the spring 1732 Linnaeus was awarded a grant from the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala to travel to Lappland on an expedition. In Lapland he gathered and studied mainly plants but also birds, insects etc.^[26] Even though Lapland was a region without much biodiversity Linnaeus still described about one hundred of previously unknown plants. His discoveries later produced a book, Flora Lapponica.^[27][28]

In April 1735 Linnaeus travelled to Holland to take a doctor's degree in medicine at University of Harderwijk.^[29] Linnaeus completed his degree in less than a week and became a doctor, only 28 years old.^[30] He had brought with him from Sweden many botanical manuscripts, one of these were Systema Naturae. He had showed the script to the botanist Jan Frederik Gronovius and Scottish doctor Isaac Lawson, they became so impressed they offered to pay for the printing. Systema Naturae was printed for the first time shortly there after.^[31]

Thanks to being acquainted with Herman Boerhaave, a famous physician,^[32] Linnaeus was invited to George Clifford III who was a director of the Dutch East India Company and the owner of the rich botanical garden at Hartecamp.^[33] On the 24 September 1735 he became the botanical curator and house physician at Hartecamp. His work at Hartecamp led to another book Hortus Cliffortianus, a catalogue of the botanical holdings in the botanical garden of Hartecamp.^[34][27]

In July 1736 Linnaeus travelled to England, paid by Clifford.^[35] He went to London to visit Sir Hans Sloane, a collector of Natural History, and see his cabinet.^[36] Another reason for his coming to England was to visit Chelsea Physic Garden and its keeper, Philip Miller. He learned Miller about his new system to subdivide plants, the one described in Systema Naturae. Miller was impressed and from on then started to arrange the Garden according to Linnaeus' system.^[37] Linnaeus also travelled to Oxford University to visit on a botanist there, Johann Jacob Dillenius. However he failed to make Dillenius publicly accept Linnaeus' classification system. He then returned to Hartecamp, brining with him many rare specimens of plants.^[38] The next year he published yet another book, Genera Plantarum in which, he described 935 genera of plants.^[39]

Linnaeus stayed with Clifford in Hartecamp until the autumn of 1737 when he decided to return to Sweden.^[40][41]

Back in Sweden

The Linnaeus house in Uppsala.

When Linnaeus returned to Sweden 28 June 1738 he went to Falun where he got engaged to Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Three months later he moved to Stockholm to find work as a physician and thus making it possible to support a family.^[42][43] Once again Linnaeus found a patron; he became acquainted with Count Carl Gustav Tessin which helped Linnaeus get work as a physician at the Admiralty.^[44][45] During this time in Stockholm Linnaeus helped founding the Royal Swedish Academy of Science. Linnaeus was the first Praeses in the academy.^[46]

Because his economy had improved and was now sufficient to support a family he got permission to marry his fiancée Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Their wedding was held 26 June 1739. Seven months later Sara gave birth to their first son, Carl. Two years later a daughter, Elisabeth Christina was born and the subsequent year Sara gave birth to Sara Magdalena who died 15 days old. Sara and Linnaeus would later have four other children: Lovisa, Sara Christina, Johannes and Sophia. Johannes died before he became three years old.^[42][47]

In May 1741 Linnaeus was appointed Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University, first with the responsibility of the medicine related matters. Soon he changed place with the other Professor of Medicine, Nils Rosén, and thus got responsibility for the Botanical Garden (which he would thoroughly reconstruct and expand), botany and natural history instead. In October that same year his wife and nine year old son followed him to live in Uppsala.^[48]

Journeys in Sweden

Ten days after he was appointed Professor he took on a expedition to Öland and Gotland with six students from the university to look for plants useful in medicine. First they travelled to Öland and stayed there until 21 June when they sailed to Visby in Gotland. Linnaeus and the students stayed on Gotland for about a month and then returned to Uppsala. During this expedition they found 100 previously unrecorded plants. The observations from the expedition was later published in Öländska och gothländska resa; a book written in Swedish, containing zoological-, botanical observations and observations concerning the culture in Öland and Gotland.^[49][50]

During the summer 1745 Linnaeus published two more books: Flora Suecica and Fauna Suecica. Flora Suecica was a strictly botanical book while Fauna Suecica was zoological.^[42][51] Anders Celsius had created the temperature scale named after him in 1742. Celsius' scale was inverted from how it is today, the boiling point at 0 °C and freezing point at 100 °C. In 1745 Linnaeus inverted the scale to its present standard.^[52]

In the summer 1746 Linnaeus was once again commissioned by the Government to carry out an expedition, this time to the Swedish province Västergötland. He set out from Uppsala 12 June and returned 11 August. On the expedition his primarily companion was Erik Gustaf Lidbeck, a student who had followed him on his previous journey. He described his findings from the expedition in the book Wästgöta-Resa, published the next year.^[53][49] After returning from the journey the Government decided Linnaeus should make another expedition to the southern province Scania. This journey was postponed due to that Linnaeus felt too busy.^[42]

In 1747 Linnaeus was given the title archiater, or chief physician, by the Swedish king Adolf Frederick; a mark of great respect.^[54] The same year he was elected member of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin.^[55]

In spring 1749 Linnaeus could finally journey to Scania, again commissioned by the Government. With him he brought his student Olof Söderberg. On the way to Scania he made his last visit to his brothers and sisters in Stenbrohult since his father had died the previous year. The expedition was similar to the previous journeys in most aspects but this time he was also ordered to find the best place to grow Walnut and Swedish Whitebeam. These trees were used by the military when making rifles. The journey was successful and Linnaeus' observations was published the next year in Skånska Resa.^[56][57]

Rector of Uppsala University

The coat of arms of Carl von Linné.

In 1750 Linnaeus became rector of Uppsala University, starting a period where specifically natural sciences were esteemed.^[58][42]The perhaps most important contribution Linnaeus made during his time at Uppsala was to teach; many of his students were trained and sent to various places in the world to collect botanical samples. Linnaeus called these students his "apostles".^[59]

Linnaeus published Philosophia botanica in 1751, a book about botanical theory.^[42]

Two years later Linnaeus published Species Plantarum, the work which is internationally accepted as the beginning of modern botanical nomenclature together with his earlier work Systema Naturae. The book contained 1,200 pages and was published in two volumes. It described over 7,300 species.^[60][61][62] The same year he dubbed knight of the Order of the Polar Star by the king. Linnaeus was the first civilian in Sweden to become a knight in this order.^[63]

Linnaeus felt Uppsala was too noisy and unhealthy and thus he bought two farms in 1758: Hammarby and Sävja. The next year he bought a neighbouring farm, Edeby. Together with his family he often spent the summers at Hammarby; first only a small one-storey house but expanded with a new, bigger main building in 1762.^[57][64] In Hammarby Linnaeus made a garden were he could grow plants that could not be grown in the Botanical Garden in Uppsala. He constructed a museum on a hill behind Hammarby in 1766 where he moved his library and collection of plants.^[65]

Since the initial release of Systema Naturae in 1735 the book had been expanded and reprinted several times; the tenth edition was released in in 1758. This edition established itself as the starting point for zoological nomenclature, the equivalent of Species Plantarum.^[66][61]

The Swedish king Adolf Frederick granted Linnaeus nobility in 1757 but it was not until 1761 he was raised to nobility. He took the name von Linné, becoming Carl von Linné. The noble family's coat of arms prominently features a twinflower, one of Linnaeus favourite plants; it was given the scientific name Linnaea borealis in his honor.^[67][68]

Last years

Tombstone of Carl Linnaeus and his son Carolus Linnaeus the Younger.

Linnaeus was relieved of his duties in the Royal Swedish Academy of Science in 1763 but continued his work there as usual for more than ten years after.^[42] In 1772 Linnaeus stepped down as rector at Uppsala University mostly due to that his health was beginning to decline.^[41][69]

Linnaeus' last years was were troubled by illness. In 1776 he suffered from a stroke that almost made him lose the use of his right side.^[70] In December 1777 he had another stroke which greatly weakened him. 10 January 1778 Linnaeus died in Hammarby.^[71][69] He was buried in Uppsala Cathedral. ^[72]

Linnaean taxonomy

Linnaeus's main contribution to taxonomy was to establish conventions for the naming of living organisms that became universally accepted in the scientific world—the work of Linnaeus represents the starting point of binomial nomenclature. In addition Linnaeus developed, during the great 18th century expansion of natural history knowledge, what became known as the Linnaean taxonomy; the system of scientific classification now widely used in the biological sciences.

The Linnaean system classified nature within a nested hierarchy, starting with three kingdoms. Kingdoms were divided into Classes and they, in turn, into Orders, which were divided into Genera (singular: genus), which were divided into Species (singular: species). Below the rank of species he sometimes recognized taxa of a lower (unnamed) rank (for plants these are now called "varieties").

His groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics. Only his groupings for animals remain to this day, and the groupings themselves have been significantly changed since Linnaeus' conception, as have the principles behind them. Nevertheless, Linnaeus is credited with establishing the idea of a hierarchical structure of classification which is based upon observable characteristics. While the underlying details concerning what are considered to be scientifically valid 'observable characteristics' has changed with expanding knowledge (for example, DNA sequencing, unavailable in Linnaeus' time, has proven to be a tool of considerable utility for classifying living organisms and establishing their relationships to each other), the fundamental principle remains sound.

Major Works

Title page of the 1760 edition of Systema Naturae.

Systema Naturae

The first edition of Systema Naturae was printed in the Netherlands in 1735. It was an eleven page work. By the time it reached its 10th edition (1758), it classified 4,400 species of animals and 7,700 species of plants. In it, the unwieldy names mostly used at the time, such as "Physalis annua ramosissima, ramis angulosis glabris, foliis dentato-serratis", were supplemented with concise and now familiar "binomials", composed of the generic name, followed by a specific epithet - in the case given, Physalis angulata. These binomials could serve as a label to refer to the species. Higher taxa were constructed and arranged in a simple and orderly manner. Although the system, now known as binomial nomenclature, was developed by the Bauhin brothers (see Gaspard Bauhin and Johann Bauhin) almost 200 years earlier, Linnaeus was the first to use it consistently throughout the work, also in monospecific genera, and may be said to have popularized it within the scientific community.

Linnaeus named taxa in ways that personally struck him as common-sensical; for example, human beings are Homo sapiens (see sapience). He also briefly described a second human species, Homo troglodytes ("cave-dwelling man"). This was however likely a confusion originating from exaggerated second- or third-hand accounts of the chimpanzee (currently most often placed in a different genus, as Pan troglodytes). The group "mammalia" are named for their mammary glands because one of the defining characteristics of mammals is that they nurse their young.

Species Plantarum

Species Plantarum (or, more fully, Species Plantarum, exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas) was first published in 1753, as a two-volume work. Its prime importance is perhaps that it is the primary starting point of plant nomenclature as it exists today.

In 1754 Linnaeus divided the plant Kingdom into 25 classes. One, Cryptogamia, included all the plants with concealed reproductive parts (algae, fungi, mosses and liverworts and ferns).^[73]

Genera Plantarum

Genera plantarum: eorumque characteres naturales secundum numerum, figuram, situm, et proportionem omnium fructificationis partium was first published in 1737, delineating plant genera. It reached its sixth edition by 1764.

Systema Plantarum

Systema Plantarum was a work published in 1779 that integrated the botanical aspects of Systema Naturae with Species Plantarum (and, defacto, Genera Plantarum) to make a complete work. This work actually presented the fourth edition of Species Plantarum.

Disciples

Linnaeus imbued his students with his own thoroughness in an atmosphere of enthusiasm, trained them to close and accurate observation, and then sent them to various parts of the globe. Some of the notable students and expeditions include Pehr Kalm's visit to North America 1748–1751; Daniel Solander, traveling first with James Cook's expedition to the Pacific in 1768, then in 1771 to Iceland, the Faroes and Orkney; Fredric Hasselquist, who visited Palestine and parts of Asia Minor; and Carl Peter Thunberg, journeying to Japan, South Africa, Java, and Sri Lanka.

Honors

Linnaeus is featured on the 100 Swedish Krona banknote.

The Linnean Society of London has awarded the Linnean Medal for excellence in botany and zoology since 1888.

In 1986, a new 100 Swedish Krona banknote was introduced featuring a portrait of Linnaeus, drawings of pollinating plants from his Præludia Sponsaliarum Plantarum (1729), a sketch of the Linnaean Garden and a quote, often described as Linnaeus' motto, from Philosophia Botanica (1751) which reads "OMNIA MIRARI ETIAM TRITISSIMA": Find wonder in all things, even the most commonplace.^[75]

Linnaeus University

On 1 January, 2010, Växjö University and Kalmar College will merge, forming the new Linnaeus University. The university will have two campuses, one in Växjö, and one in Kalmar. The merger has been approved by the Parliament of Sweden.^[76]

See also

• Peter Artedi
• Jonas C. Dryander
• John Hill (one of Linnaeus' most constant correspondents in England)
• History of phycology
• Linnaeus Arboretum
• Linnean Society of London
• Linnéska institutet
• Linnaea borealis (commonly known as Twinflower) a boreal plant named after Linnaeus, the naming made by Linnaeus' teacher, Jan Frederik Gronovius
• Linnaeus' flower clock
• Scientific revolution

Footnotes

References

Notes

Bibliography

Further reading

• Brightwell, C. L. A Life of Linnaeus. London: J. Van Voorst, 1858.
• Hovey, Edmund Otis. The Bicentenary of the Birth of Carolus Linnaeus. New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1908.
• Sörlin & Fagerstedt, Linné och hans lärjungar, 2004. ISBN 91-27-35590-X
• J.L.P.M. Krol, Linneaus' verblijf op de Hartekamp In: Het landgoed de Hartekamp in Heemstede. Heemstede, 1982. ISBN 90-70712-01-6
• Linneaus plays a significant role in the short story entitled "Rare Bird" by Andrea Barrett (which appears in her 1996 anthology "Ship Fever").

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Linnaeus

• Biography at the Department of Systematic Botany, University of Uppsala
• Biography at The Linnean Society of London
• Biography from the University of California Museum of Paleontology
• The Linnean Correspondence
• Carl Linneaus featured on the 100 Swedish Krona banknote.
• Linnean Herbarium
• The Linnæus Tercentenary celebration
• IK Foundation & Company Linnaeus Project
• The Linnaean Dissertations
• The Linnean Collections